The Barbary lion ..rare Atlas lion

The Barbary lion is often regarded as the largest and the heaviest of the lion subspecies with estimated weights for males of 190 to 230 kilograms (420 to 510 lb) and for females of 150 to 190 kilograms (330 to 420 lb).[1] These weight ranges have been criticized for being greatly exaggerated, however, with the Barbary lion being considered similar in size to the lions in East Africa.[2] Male Barbary lions were around 2.7 to 3.4 metres (8 ft 10 in to 11 ft 2 in) in length and females were around 2.1 to 2.7 metres (6 ft 10 in to 8 ft 10 in) in length.
Unlike other lion subspecies, the Barbary lion did not live in prides due to the scarcity of food in its habitat.[3] These lions were solitary like the other big cat species, or occasionally lived in pairs. Females raised their young until maturity - approximately 2 years - and then separated from them.
Diet

The main sources of natural prey for the predators of the Atlas Mountains were Barbary Stag and gazelle. Another particular favorite, and somewhat easier target, were the Arab herds of cows and sheep. The method of hunting was never documented, but it is believed that they used the same death by strangulation method as do the other big cats of the world.



Sultan the Barbary Lion, New York Zoo, 1897
The Romans used Barbary lions in the Coliseum to battle with Gladiators. In the Middle Ages, the lions kept in the menagerie at the Tower of London were Barbary lions, as shown by DNA testing on the two well-preserved skulls excavated at the Tower in 1937. The skulls have been radiocarbon dated to 1280-1385 AD and 1420-1480 AD. Dr Nobuyuki Yamaguchi of the Wildlife Conservation Unit at the University of Oxford said the growth of civilizations along the Nile and in Sinai Peninsula by the beginning of the second millennium BC stopped genetic flow by isolating lion populations. Desertification also prevented the Barbary lions from mixing with lions located further south in the continent. The lion survived in the wild in northwestern Africa in what is now current day Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco until about 1922.
In the 19th century and the early 20th century Barbary lions were often kept in hotels and circus menageries. The lions in the Tower of London were transferred to more humane conditions at the London Zoo in 1835, on the orders of the Duke of Wellington. One famous purebred Barbary lion named "Sultan" lived in the London Zoo in 1896.
Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia kept Barbary lions at his court.

Extinction in the wild


Hunted male and female by Friedrich Specht
The Egyptians were the first humans to encounter the Barbary lions; Berbers soon followed, forming small villages and farms across the mountains of North Africa some three thousand years ago. Neither people offered a true threat to the Barbaries who roamed the Atlas Mountains.
During this time, Barbary lions had been offered in lieu of taxes and as gifts to royal families of Morocco and Ethiopia. The rulers of Morocco kept these 'royal lions' through war and insurrection, splitting the collection between zoos when the royal family went into exile briefly; some were returned to the palace when the exiled ruler returned to the throne. After a respiratory disease nearly wiped out the royal lions, the current ruler established the Temara Zoo in Rabat, Morocco to house the lions and improve their quality of life. There remains a handful of 'royal lions' to this day that have the right pedigree and physical characteristics to be considered mostly-pure Barbary descendents.
The Barbary lion first became extinct in Tripoli in 1700, then in Tunisia in 1891, Algeria in 1899, and finally, the last known Barbary lion in the wild was shot and killed in the Atlas Mountains in Morocco in 1922.
The Barbary lion is believed to be extinct in captivity as well. However, possible Barbary lion individuals or descendants have allegedly been located in zoos and circus populations within the last three decades, but this has not been confirmed genetically. The two other primary predators of northern Africa, the Atlas bear and Barbary leopard, are now also extinct, and close to extinction, respectively.
[edit]Possible survivors



Illustration by Joseph Bassett Holder
Currently several dozen individuals in captivity are claimed to be Barbary lions. In the past scientists believed that the distinct subspecies status of the Barbary lion was established by its seemingly fixed external morphology, particularly its heavier mane. However, it is now known that various extrinsic factors influence the color and size of all lions' manes, such as ambient temperature. As the cooler ambient temperature in European and North American zoos has been found to produce Barbary-like manes in other lion subspecies, this characteristic is now considered an inappropriate marker for identifying Barbary ancestry.
Mitochondrial DNA research published in 2006 supports the distinctness of the Barbary lions as a subspecies. The results found a unique mtDNA haplotype to be present in some of those museum specimens believed to be of Barbary descent. This may be a good molecular marker for identifying—and excluding—other potential Barbary lions.The mtDNA results revealed that five tested samples of lions from the famous collection of the King of Morocco are not, according to this criterion, maternally Barbary.However, in the same year, mtDNA research revealed that a lion specimen from Neuwied Zoo (which originated from the collection of the King of Morocco) is not of sub-Saharan origin according to its mitochondrial lineage and, thus, very likely a descendant of a Barbary lion.
In 2008, in a major study published in PLOS Genetics, it was found that four "Atlas" lions from Morocco did not exhibit any unique genetic characteristics. However, the Moroccan cats shared mitochondrial haplotypes (H5 and H6) with central African lions, and together with them were part of a major mtDNA grouping (lineage III) that also included Asiatic samples. According to the authors, this scenario was in line with their theories on lion evolution. They conclude that lineage III developed in east Africa, and then travelled north and west in the first wave of lion expansions out of the region some 118,000 years ago. It apparently broke up into haplotypes H5 and H6 within Africa, and then into H7 and H8 in west Asia.
While the historical Barbary lion was morphologically distinct, its genetic uniqueness remains questionable, and the taxonomic status of surviving lions frequently considered as Barbary lions, including those that originated from the collection of the King of Morocco, is still unclear.
Nonetheless, genes of the Barbary lion are likely to be present in common European zoo lions, since this was one of the most frequently introduced subspecies. Therefore many lions in European and American zoos, which are managed without subspecies classification are in fact partly descendants of the Barbary lion.
[edit]The Barbary Lion Project


Illustration from the 1800s
The former popularity of the Barbary Lion as a zoo animal provides the only hope to ever see it again in the wild in North Africa. Many zoos provide mating programmes, which will help to increase the population of the species.
After years of research into the science of the Barbary Lion and stories of surviving examples, WildLink International, in collaboration with Oxford University, launched their ambitious International Barbary Lion Project. They are using the very latest DNA techniques to identify the DNA 'fingerprint' of the Barbary Lion subspecies. WildLink International has taken bone samples from remains of Barbary Lions in museums across Europe, like those in Brussels, Paris, Turin and others. These samples are returned to Oxford University where the science team is extracting the DNA sequence that identifies the Barbary as a separate subspecies.
Although the Barbary may be extinct, and is certainly extinct in the wild, WildLink International identified a handful of lions in captivity around the world that may be descended from the original Barbary Lion. These descendants will be tested against the DNA fingerprint and the degree of any hybridization (from crossbreeding) can then be determined. The best candidates will then enter a selective breeding programme slated to 'breed back' the Barbary Lion. The final phase of the project will see the lions released into a National Park in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco.
As of March 2010, two alleged barbary lion cubs have been moved to 'The Texas Zoo' in Victoria, Texas where efforts are being made to preserve the endangered species under the WildLink International conservation programme.
The wildlife parks of Howletts and Port Lympne in Kent, England have a successful breeding program for the Barbary lions.

Medina of Tétouan (formerly Titawin)

Tétouan was of particular importance in the Islamic period, from the 8th century onwards, since it served as the main point of contact between Morocco and Andalusia. After the Reconquest, the town was rebuilt by Andalusian refugees who had been expelled by the Spanish. This is well illustrated by its art and architecture, which reveal clear Andalusian influence. Although one of the smallest of the Moroccan medinas, Tétouan is unquestionably the most complete and it has been largely untouched by subsequent outside influences.
Brief synthesis
The Medina of Tétouan developed on the steep slopes of the Jebel Dersa. In the Islamic period it had particular importance from the 8th century onwards since it served as the point of connection between Morocco and Andalusia. After the Reconquest, the town was rebuilt by refugees in this region who had been expelled by the Spanish.  This is well illustrated by its art and architecture which reveal clear Andalusian influence. It is one of the smallest of the Moroccan medinas but indisputably the most complete and the majority of its buildings have remained untouched by subsequent outside influences.
The Medina of Tétouan is surrounded by a historic wall of approximately 5 km in length and accessed by means of seven gates. The urban layout is characterised by main streets linking the gates to one another and giving access to open spaces (squares and smaller squares) and public buildings such as funduqs, mosques, zawayas and to the artisan and commercial districts, and on the other hand to smaller lanes leading to passages and semi-private residential areas. A true synthesis of Moroccan and Andalusian cultures, the historic town of Tétouan presents urban and architectural features that have influenced the architectural and artistic development during the period of the Spanish Protectorate. The town of Tétouan is famous for its school of arts and crafts (Dar Sanaa) and its National Institute of Fine Arts which testify to an ancestral tradition and an opening onto the world today.
Criterion (ii): The Medina of Tétouan bears witness to the considerable influences of Andalusian civilization towards the end of the medieval period of Muslim Occident. This influence is illustrated in developments in architecture, monumental arts and town-planning.
Criterion (iv): The Medina of Tétouan constitutes an outstanding example of a fortified Mediterranean coastal town, built against a North Moroccan mountain landscape. It testifies to the antiquity of the settlement, and during the Islamic period it gained considerable importance as the only connection between the Iberian Peninsula and the interior of Morocco. Its expansion from the beginning of the 17th century continued until the end of the 18th century and is reflected in its fortifications, architecture, synthesis of Moroccan and Andalusian cultures and its urban fabric.
Criterion (v): The strategic position of the Medina of Tétouan opposite the Straits of Gibraltar played an important role as the point of contact and of transition between two civilizations (Spanish and Arab) and two continents (Europe and North Africa).
Integrity (2009)
The boundaries of the property include all the attributes that are necessary to express its Outstanding Universal Value.  Some of the attributes require conservation measures and priority as concerns conservation work is given to the ramparts, gates and to the borjs (fortified watch towers). The municipality cooperates with the Government of Andalusia (Spain) in carrying out rehabilitation work in the centre of the Medina.
Authenticity (2009)
The authenticity of the Medina is illustrated by its original urban layout practically intact and its initial design with surrounding wall, gates, and fortified constructions. Their construction dates back to the 18th century and still conserves their configuration and original materials.  The Medina possesses an original urban fabric characterised by the hierarchy of streets and division of residential, commercial and artisan areas following a clearly defined plan. In general, the built heritage such as the zawayas,  fountains, hammams, ovens, and historic silos, have retained their authenticity, be it in their shape, their construction materials or their decoration or even for some, their function. The majority of houses have remained intact, even although some floors have been illegally added and interior separations have been installed.
Protection and management requirements (2009)
Protection measures are essentially regulated by the different laws for the listing of historic monuments and sites, in particular Law 22-80 (1981) concerning the conservation of Moroccan heritage. The services concerned and the local authorities and associations demonstrate a strong will and conviction in favour of preserving and conserving the property. The municipality, the town-planning services, local authorities and the Ministry for Culture are all responsible for the management and conservation of the property. Being legally responsible for the conservation of cultural heritage in general, the Ministry for Culture orients and assists the different services in their actions for the preservation and conservation of the Medina. The methods and priorities for this conservation are determined by the recommendations and directives taken in the framework of the study of the master plan of the town of Tétouan. The regional and local development plans concerning the Medina are summarised in the Master Plan for Tétouan, developed by the Ministry of Housing and Planning in 1982, giving high priority to the conservation and rehabilitation of the Medina. The Development Plan for the North-West Region prepared by the Regional Directorate for Town-Planning, Architecture and Planning in February 1996, has as its objectives, the obligation to conserve and rehabilitate the medinas. The creation, since the end of 2006, of Regional Directorates for Culture, reinforces the incorporation of a conservation policy into local development. The Development Plan for the Medina of Tétouan includes provisions for conservation and management and takes into account the universal value of the site.

The Medina of Tétouan is an exceptionally well-preserved and complete example of this type of historic town, displaying all the features of high Andalusian culture.
The origins of Tétouan are not known, but the discovery of archaeological sites from prehistory and the classical period (Phoenician, Punico-Mauritanian and Roman) in the immediate surroundings of the town attest to the antiquity of the settlement of the Oued Martil valley in general and the site of Tétouan in particular.
In the Islamic period the Tétouan region became very important as the only connection between the Iberian Peninsula and the interior of Morocco. As a result, a number of towns grew up, such as Ceuta, Tangier and Qsar es-Saghir. Tétouan is mentioned by a number of Arab writers of the 10th-12th centuries, but it did not assume an important role until after the fall of Ceuta and other centres on the coast to Spanish and Portuguese troops towards the end of the Middle Ages.
A fortified garrison (kasbah ) had been installed at the site of Tétouan by Sultan Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Marini in 1286 to block Ceuta. The town grew up in the early 14th century, but was sacked and completely destroyed by Spanish forces a century later. It was rebuilt at the end of the 15th century by a group of refugees from Andalusia during the reign of Sultan Mohammed ach-Cheikh al-Wattassi. The late 15th-century town was small, consisting of the present-day al-Balad quarter and a kasbah , built to the requirements of Abu al-Hassan Ali al-Mandri, military leader of Banu al-Ahmar of Granada.
The second stage in its development came in the mid-16th century when the medina was extended to the south-west, the Rabat al-Asfal quarter. Finally, the arrival of the Moriscos (Spanish Muslims forcibly converted to Christianity and later expelled from Spain) from 1609 onwards led to a further expansion of the medina towards the north-west. This continued until the mid-18th century, when the fortifications were rebuilt, to give the medina its existing configuration.
Tétouan developed on the stepped slopes of the Jabal Dersa. It consists of two quadrilaterals of more or less equal size alongside each other, giving an overall outline of a figure-of-eight.
The defensive walls are about 5 km long, with a number of buttresses and defensive works on the exterior of the wall, such as the bastions of Bab al-Oqla and Bab en-Nwader on the north and the star-shaped bastion at the north-east corner. Access is by means of seven historic gates. Inside, the medina is crossed by main streets linking the gates with one another. These provide means of access to open spaces, to public buildings such as the funduqs (inns), mosques and zawayas (religious enceintes), and to the artisan and commercial quarters. Lanes lead from the main streets to private residential quarters.

The origins of the town ofTetouan are not known, but the discovery of archaeological sites from prehistory and the classical period (Phoenician, PunicoMauritanian, and Roman) in the immediate surroundings of the town attest the antiquity of the settlement of the Oued Martil valley in general and the site ofTetouan in particular.
In the Islamic period the Tetouan region became very important as the only connection between the Iberian peninsula and the interior of Morocco. As a result, a number of towns grew up, such as Ceuta, Tangier, and Qsar es-Saghir. Tetouan is mentioned by a number of Arab writers ofthe 10th-12th centuries, but it did not assume an important role until after the fall of Ceuta and other centres on the coast to Spanish and Portuguese troops towards the end of the Middle Ages.
A fortified garrison (qasba) had been installed at the site ofTetouan by Sultan Abu YusufYaqub al-Marini in 1286 to block Ceuta. The town grew up in the early 14th century, but was sacked and completely destroyed by Spanish forces a century later. It was rebuilt at the end of the 15th century by a group of refugees from Andalusia during the reign of Sultan Mohammed ach-Cheikh al-Wattassi. The late 15th century town was small, consisting of the present-day al-Balad quarter and a fortified qasba, built to the requirements of Abu al-Hassan Ali al-Mandri, military leader ofBanu al-Ahmar of Granada.
The second stage in its development came in the mid 16th century when the medina was extended to the south-west, the Rabat al-Asfal quarter. Finally, the arrival of the Moriscos (Spanish Muslims forcibly converted to Christianity and later expelled from Spain) from 1609 onwards led to a further expansion of the medina towards the north-west (Rabat al-Aala). This continued until the mid 18th century, when the fortifications were rebuilt, to give the medina its existing configuration.

A guide .. Meknes

Meknes Tourist Attractions: A guide to sights in Meknes

Meknes is an unexpected delight in Morocco, looming up large like a mirage in the heart of the countryside.

There is a great deal of monuments to see from the rich, imperial past of Meknes. These are dominated by the extraordinary creations of Moulay Ismail in the Imperial City, a full day’s rambling exploration at least. Then there are the Medina’s varied and busy souks and the appeal of the roman site Volubilis, a short drive from Meknes.

The Imperial City

Meknes is strongly associated with the rule of Moulay Ismail, a powerful Moroccan sultan who built the city from a provincial centre to a spectacular imperial capital during his reign in the late 17th century.

The remains of this creation if Meknes Imperial City: palaces, gardens, stables and gateways.

Place el Hedim

Place el Hedim: The forecourt to Moulay Ismail's palaces, now a tourist square used by merchants and street sellers.

Place el Hedim literally means “square of demolition and renewal”. Legend has it that Moulay Ismail has demolished the houses here, on the western corner of the Medina, to make way for a large, presentable forecourt for the entrance of his palace quarters. It is also said that he used it as a depot for construction material gathered from around Morocco, including nearby Volubilis.

Today, Place el Hedim is very much touristic with merchants and street sellers offering bits and pieces for visiting tourists.

Bab Mansour

Bab Mansour: A grandiose entrance to the Imperial City of Meknes, with a design that is an adaptation of classic Almohad design.

Situated in the southeast side of Place el Hedim, Bab Mansour is the centrepiece of the Imperial City’s ensemble of walls and gateways. It is a grandiose entrance to the Imperial City that immediately recalls the glamour and splendour of Moulay Ismail’s creations.

The design of the gate is an adaptation of the classic Almohad design. The decorative patterns are the cheek-and-shoulder patterns pioneered by the Almohads, elaborated with a brilliant array of black tiles. An ornamental inscription above celebrates the triumph of Moulay Ismail and his son Moulay Abdellah under whose rule the gate was completed. The gate is flanked by unusual squat bastions whose marble columns have been brought from Volubilis.

Alongside Bab Mansour is a smaller gate with the same style, Bab Djemaa en Nouar.

Mausoleum of Moulay Ismail

Moulay Ismail Mausoleum: A series of courts and chambers decorated in bright tile and spiralling stuccowork, with a sanctuary at the back containing the remains of Moulay Ismail and his family members.

The Mausoleum of Moulay Ismail is one of only three Moroccan shrines that non-Muslims can visit. The other two are the tomb of Mohammed V in Rabat and the Medersa Bou Inania in Fes.

The mausoleum has bizarrely been constructed during the reign of Moulay Ismail and since his death has been a point of reverence. Despite his excesses, Moulay Ismail is remembered for driving out the Spanish and British from Morocco, uniting the country and of course his establishment of the Alaouite dynasty. His strict observance of orthodox Islamic ritual has also conferred a kinf od salutary, healing power on him. You will see many Moroccans visiting the shrine seeking baraka or interecession to receive health, well-being and luck.

The Mausoleum consists of a series of courts and chambers decorated in bright tile and spiralling stuccowork. Behind these courts lie the sanctuary the holds the remains of Moulay Ismail and his family members.

The mausoleum is open daily from 9 – 12:30 and 15:00 – 18:00, except Fridays. Admission is free and modest dress for both men and women is required.

Heri es Souani

Heri es Souani: A remarkable system of high-vaulted chambers with storerooms and granaries, going back to the reign of Moulay Ismail in the 17th century.

A thirty-minute walk from Bab Mansour is Heri es Souani, also known as Dar el Ma, the site of Moulay Ismail’s stables.

Here you will find a remarkable system of high-vaulted chambers with a series storerooms and granaries. In the time of Moulay Ismail, these were used to hold provisions in a case of a drought or a siege. Upon closer look, you will notice chain bucket wells built between the each of the storerooms, a testament to the complexity of Moroccan engineering in the seventeenth century.

Heri es Souani is open daily from 9 – Noon and 15:00 – 16:00. Admission is 10dh.

The Medina

The main sites in the Medina are its varied and busy souks, in addition to the Merenid Medersa Bou Inania and a nineteenth-century palace Museum, Dar Jamaii.

The Souks

Meknes Souk: The souk at Place el Hedim is the best place to buy a Moroccan tagine in Meknes!

The souks in Meknes are not as big as those in Fez or Marrakech but they are extensive and certainly worth a visit. You will also find the dealers here more willing to bargain due to the lack of constant tourist stream you find in Marrakech or Fez.

To reach the souks, follow the Medina’s major market street leading to the Grand Mosque and Bou Inania – this is Souk es Sabbat (Shoes Market). This souk has a more formal section, beginning with babouches vendors and moving on to classier goods aimed at tourists near the medersa.

On your left, is Souk en Nejjarin, the carpenters’ workshops. Further down, on your left, is a parallel arcade. This is where Souk es Zerabi is, a market selling carpets and rugs. Prices can be high depending on quality but you will find the dealers more than willing to bargain.

Meknes Souk: This is the Souk Atriya, with a display of multicoloured vegetables, spices and olives.

At the end of souk en nejjarin is the Souk Bezzarine, a general flea market along the Medina walls. Further up to the right are ironsmiths, basketmakers, saddlers, tent makers and a couple of musical instrument workshops.

Near Bou Inania is Kissaria Lahrir, where you can see the traditional process of making silver damascene. This is a very meticulous process whereby a thin silver thread is slowly engraved in steel and used to decorate plates and other items.

Back at the central square of the medina, Place el Hedim; do not miss the Souk Atriya, a covered food market. There is a display of everything from rows of multi-coloured vegetables, spice stalls, pyramids of olives, sweet stalls and other assortments of delicacies.

Dar Jamai

Dar Jamai: The former residence of the viziers, now converted into a Museum of Moroccan Art.

Dar Jamai, like the Palais Jamaii in Fez, was built by the Jamai family of viziers in 1882. It was initially used as a family residence, before being converted into a military hospital in 1912 and finally becoming the Museum of Moroccan Art in 1920.

The building itself is worth a visit to admire the gorgeous second-flour reception room and the intricate decoration with sculpted plaster and painted wood. The courtyard has a refreshing Andalusian Garden planted with palm, banana and lemon trees as well as cypresses and papyrus.

The museum features regional crafts ranging from wrought iron work and wooden sculpture to weaving and metalwork. Some of the exhibits date back to the Moulay Ismail’s reign.

Dar Jamai is open daily from 9 – Noon and 15:00 – 16:00, except on Tuesdays. Admission is 20dh.

Medersa Bou Inania

Medersa Bou Inania: An Islamic educational institution in Meknes built by Merenid Sultans in the fourteenth century.

The Bou Inania Medersa, an Islamic educational institution, was built by Merenid Sultan Abu el Hassan and finished by his successor Sultant Abou Inan around 1340 – 1350. This is the Meknes version of the educational institution by the same name in Fez, more beautiful and better preserved than its more famous twin.

The building has a single courtyard opening onto a narrow prayer hall, with every facet meticulously decorated calligraphy and decorative carving.